Immunology

The response to pathogens is composed by the complex interactions and activities of the large number of diverse cell types involved in the immune response. The innate immune response is the first line of defense and occurs soon after pathogen exposure. It is carried out by phagocytic cells such as neutrophils and macrophages, cytotoxic natural killer (NK) cells, and granulocytes. The subsequent adaptive immune response includes antigen-specific defense mechanisms and may take days to develop. Cell types with critical roles in adaptive immunity are antigen-presenting cells including macrophages and dendritic cells. Antigen-dependent stimulation of various cell types including T cell subsets, B cells, and macrophages all play critical roles in host defense.

The immune system is the body’s first line of defense against most diseases and unnatural invaders. Cancer Immunobiology  is a branch of immunology and it studies interactions between the immune system and cancer  cells. These cancer cells, through subtle alterations, become immortal malignant cells but are often not changed enough to elicit an immune reaction. Understanding how the immune system works—or does not work—against cancer is a primary focus of Cancer Immunology investigators. certain cells of the immune system, including natural killer cells, dendritic cells (DCs) and effector T cells, are capable of driving potent anti-tumour responses.

Tumor Immunobiology

The immune system can promote the elimination of tumours, but often immune responses are modulated or suppressed by the tumour microenvironment. The Tumour microenvironment is an important aspect of cancer biology that contributes to tumour initiation, tumour progression and responses to therapy. Cells and molecules of the immune system are a fundamental component of the tumour microenvironment. Importantly, therapeutic strategies can harness the immune system to specifically target tumour cells and this is particularly appealing owing to the possibility of inducing tumour-specific immunological memory, which might cause long-lasting regression and prevent relapse in cancer patients. The composition and characteristics of the tumour microenvironment vary widely and are important in determining the anti-tumour immune response. Tumour cells often induce an immunosuppressive microenvironment, which favours the development of immunosuppressive populations of immune cells, such as myeloid-derived suppressor cells and regulatory T cells.

Inflammation is the body's attempt at self-protection; the aim being to remove harmful stimuli, including damaged cells, irritants, or pathogens - and begin the healing process. In Inflammation the body's white blood cells and substances they produce protect us from infection with foreign organisms, such as bacteria and viruses. However, in some diseases, like arthritis, the body's defense system, the immune system triggers an inflammatory response when there are no foreign invaders to fight off. In these diseases, called autoimmune diseases, the body's normally protective immune system causes damage to its own tissues. 

THERAPIES

Inflammation Therapy is a treatment for chronic disease involving a combination of lifestyle factors and medications designed to enable the immune system to fight the disease. Techniques used include heat therapy, cold therapy, electrical stimulation, traction, massage, and acupuncture. Heat increases blood flow and makes connective tissue more flexible. It temporarily decreases joint stiffness, pain, and muscle spasms. Heat also helps reduce inflammation and the buildup of fluid in tissues (edema). Heat therapy is used to treat inflammation (including various forms of arthritis), muscle spasm, and injuries such as sprains and strains. Cold therapy Applying cold may help numb tissues and relieve muscle spasms, pain due to injuries, and low back pain or inflammation that has recently developed. Cold may be applied using an ice bag, a cold pack, or fluids (such as ethyl chloride) that cool by evaporation. The therapist limits the time and amount of cold exposure to avoid damaging tissues and reducing body temperature (causing hypothermia). Cold is not applied to tissues with a reduced blood supply (for example, when the arteries are narrowed by peripheral arterial disease).

MOLECULAR IMMUNOLOGY

Molecular immunology deals with immune responses at cellular and molecular level. Molecular immunology has been evolved for better understanding of the sub-cellular immune responses for prevention and treatment of immune related disorders and immune deficient diseases. Journal of molecular immunology focuses on the invitro and invivo immunological responses of the host.  

STRUCTURAL IMMUNOLOGY

Host immune system is an important and sophisticated system, maintaining the balance of host response to "foreign" antigens and ignorance to the normal-self. To fulfill this achievement the system manipulates a cell-cell interaction through appropriate interactions between cell-surface receptors and cell-surface ligands, or cell-secreted soluble effector molecules to their ligands/receptors/counter-receptors on the cell surface, triggering further downstream signaling for response effects. T cells and NK cells are important components of the immune system for defending the infections and malignancies and maintaining the proper response against over-reaction to the host. Receptors on the surface of T cells and NK cells include a number of important protein molecules, for example, T cell receptor (TCR), co-receptor CD8 or CD4, co-stimulator CD28, CTLA4, KIR, CD94/NKG2, LILR (ILT/LIR/CD85), Ly49, and so forth. 

Transplantation is an act of transferring cells, tissues, or organ from one site to other. Graft is implanted cell, tissue or organ.development of the field of organ and tissue transplantation has accelerated remarkably since the human major histocompatibility complex (mhc) was discovered in 1967. Matching of donor and recipient for mhc antigens has been shown to have a significant positive effect on graft acceptance. The roles of the different components of the immune system involved in the tolerance or rejection of grafts and in graft-versus-host disease have been clarified. These components include: antibodies, antigen presenting cells, helper and cytotoxic t cell subsets, immune cell surface molecules, signaling mechanisms and cytokines that they release. The development of pharmacologic and biological agents that interfere with the alloimmune response and graft rejection has had a crucial role in the success of organ transplantation. Combinations of these agents work synergistically, leading to lower doses of immunosuppressive drugs and reduced toxicity. Significant numbers of successful solid organ transplants include those of the kidneys, liver, heart and lung. 

Infectious diseases are disorders caused by organisms — such as bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites. Many organisms live in and on our bodies. They're normally harmless or even helpful, but under certain conditions, some organisms may cause disease. Some infectious diseases can be passed from person to person. Many infectious diseases, such as measles and chickenpox, can be prevented by vaccines. Frequent and thorough hand-washing also helps protect you from infectious diseases.

There are four main kinds of germs:

Bacteria - one-celled germs that multiply quickly and may release chemicals which can make you sick

Viruses - capsules that contain genetic material, and use your own cells to multiply

Fungi - primitive plants, like mushrooms or mildew

An autoimmune disease develops when your immune system, which defends your body against disease, decides your healthy cells are foreign. As a result, your immune system attacks healthy cells. An autoimmune disorder may result in the destruction of body tissue, abnormal growth of an organ, Changes in organ function. Depending on the type, an autoimmune disease can affect one or many different types of body tissue. Areas often affected by autoimmune disorders include Blood vessels, Connective tissues, Endocrine glands such as the thyroid or pancreas, Joints Muscles, Red blood cells, Skin It can also cause abnormal organ growth and changes in organ function. There are as many as 80 types of autoimmune diseases. Many of them have similar symptoms, which makes them very difficult to diagnose. It’s also possible to have more than one at the same time. Common autoimmune disorders include Addison's disease, Dermatomyositis, Graves' disease, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Multiple sclerosis, Myasthenia gravis, Pernicious anemia, Reactive arthritis. Autoimmune diseases usually fluctuate between periods of remission (little or no symptoms) and flare-ups (worsening symptoms). Currently, treatment for autoimmune diseases focuses on relieving symptoms because there is no curative therapy. 

Immunology is the study of all aspects of the immune system in all organisms. It deals with the physiological functioning of the immune system in states of both health and disease; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders (autoimmune diseases, hypersensitivities, immune deficiency, transplant rejection); the physical, chemical and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system in vitro, in situ, and in vivo.

Viruses are strongly immunogenic and induces 2 types of immune responses; humoral and cellular. The repertoire of specificities of T and B cells are formed by rearrangements and somatic mutations. T and B cells do not generally recognize the same epitopes present on the same virus. B cells see the free unaltered proteins in their native 3-D conformation whereas T cells usually see the Ag in a denatured form in conjunction with MHC molecules. The characteristics of the immune reaction to the same virus may differ in different individuals depending on their genetic constitutions.

A child suffering from allergies or other problems with his immune system is referred as pediatric immunology. Child’s immune system fights against infections. If the child has allergies, their immune system wrongly reacts to things that are usually harmless. Pet dander, pollen, dust, mold spores, insect stings, food, and medications are examples of such things. This reaction may cause their body to respond with health problems such as asthma, hay fever, hives, eczema (a rash), or a very severe and unusual reaction called anaphylaxis. Sometimes, if your child’s immune system is not working right, he may suffer from frequent, severe, and/or uncommon infections. Examples of such infections are sinusitis (inflammation of one or more of the sinuses), pneumonia (infection of the lung), thrush (a fungus infection in the mouth), and abscesses (collections of pus surrounded by inflamed tissue) that keep coming back.

Immunotherapy is treatment that uses certain parts of a person’s immune system to fight diseases such as cancer. This can be done in a couple of ways:

•          Stimulating your own immune system to work harder or smarter to attack cancer cells

•          Giving you immune system components, such as man-made immune system proteins

Some types of immunotherapy are also sometimes called biologic therapy or biotherapy. In the last few decades immunotherapy has become an important part of treating some types of cancer. Newer types of immune treatments are now being studied, and they’ll impact how we treat cancer in the future. Immunotherapy includes treatments that work in different ways. Some boost the body’s immune system in a very general way. Others help train the immune system to attack cancer cells specifically. 

Cancer immunotherapy is the use of the immune system to treat cancer. The main types of immunotherapy now being used to treat cancer include:

•          Monoclonal antibodies: these are man-made versions of immune system proteins. Antibodies can be very useful in treating cancer because they can be designed to attack a very specific part of a      cancer cell.

•          Immune checkpoint inhibitors: these drugs basically take the ‘brakes’ off the immune system, which helps it recognize and attack cancer cells.

•          Cancer vaccines: vaccines are substances put into the body to start an immune response against certain diseases. We usually think of them as being given to healthy people to help prevent infections. But some vaccines can help prevent or treat cancer.

•          other, non-specific immunotherapies: these treatments boost the immune system in a general way, but this can still help the immune system attack cancer cells.

Immunology is the study of the immune system, which is responsible for protecting the body from foreign cells such as viruses, bacteria and parasites. Immune system cells called T and B lymphocytes identify and destroy these invaders. The lymphocytes usually recognize and ignore the body’s own tissue (a condition called immunological self-tolerance), but certain autoimmune disorders trigger a malfunction in the immune response causing an attack on the body’s own cells due to a loss of immune tolerance.

Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease that occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks insulin-producing islet cells in the pancreas. This attack begins years before type 1 diabetes becomes evident, so by the time someone is diagnosed, extensive damage has already been done and the ability to produce insulin is lost.

Immunological tolerance is the failure to mount an immune response to an antigen. It can be: Natural or "self" tolerance. This is the failure (a good thing) to attack the body's own proteins and other antigens. If the immune system should respond to "self", an autoimmune disease may result.Natural or "self" tolerance: This is the failure (a good thing) to attack the body's own proteins and other antigens. If the immune system should respond to "self", an autoimmune disease may result. Induced tolerance: This is tolerance to external antigens that has been created by deliberately manipulating the immune system. 

Vaccine is a biological preparation that improves immunity to particular disease. It contains certain agents that not only resembles a disease causing microorganism but it also stimulates body’s immune system to recognise the foreign agents. Vaccines are dead or inactivated organisms or purified products derived from them. whole organism vaccines  purified macromolecules as vaccines, recombinant vaccines, DNA vaccines. The immune system recognizes vaccine agents as foreign, destroys them, and "remembers" them.

Immunotherapy is treatment that uses certain parts of a person’s immune system to fight diseases such as cancer. This can be done in a couple of ways:

•          Stimulating your own immune system to work harder or smarter to attack cancer cells

•          Giving you immune system components, such as man-made immune system proteins

Some types of immunotherapy are also sometimes called biologic therapy or biotherapy. 

Immunological techniques include both experimental methods to study the immune system and methods to generate or use immunological reagents as experimental tools. The most common immunological methods relate to the production and use of antibodies to detect specific proteins in biological samples. Various laboratory techniques exist that rely on the use of antibodies to visualize components of microorganisms or other cell types and to distinguish one cell or organism type from another. Immunologic techniques are used for: Quantitating and detecting antibodies and/or antigens, Purifying immunoglobulins, lymphokines and other molecules of the immune system, Isolating antigens and other substances important in immunological processes, Labelling antigens and antibodies, Localizing antigens and/or antibodies in tissues and cells, Detecting, and fractionating immunocompetent cells, Assaying for cellular immunity, Documenting cell-cell interactions, Initiating immunity and unresponsiveness, Transplanting tissues, Studying items closely related to immunity such as complement, reticuloendothelial system and others, Molecular techniques for studying immune cells and their receptors, Imaging of the immune system, Methods for production or their fragments in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.

Control of microbial growth, as used here, means to inhibit or prevent growth of microorganisms. This control is achieved in two basic ways: (1) by killing microorganisms or (2) by inhibiting the growth of microorganisms. Control of growth usually involves the use of physical or chemical agents which either kill or prevent the growth of microorganisms. Agents which kill cells are called cidal agents; agents which inhibit the growth of cells (without killing them) are referred to as static agents. Thus, the term bactericidal refers to killing bacteria, and bacteriostatic refers to inhibiting the growth of bacterial cells. A bactericide kills bacteria, a fungicide kills fungi, and so on. In microbiology, sterilization refers to the complete destruction or elimination of all viable organisms in or on a substance being sterilized. There are no degrees of sterilization: an object or substance is either sterile or not. Sterilization procedures involve the use of heat, radiation or chemicals, or physical removal of cells.

Immunodeficiency is a state in which the immune system's ability to fight infectious disease is compromised or entirely absent. Immunodeficiency disorders prevent your body from adequately fighting infections and diseases. An immunodeficiency disorder also makes it easier for you to catch viruses and bacterial infections in the first place. Immunodeficiency disorders are often categorized as either congenital or acquired. A congenital, or primary, disorder is one you were born with. Acquired, or secondary, disorders are disorders you get later in life. Acquired disorders are more common than congenital disorders. Immune system includes the following organs: spleen, tonsils, bone marrow, lymph nodes. These organs make and release lymphocytes. Lymphocytes are white blood cells classified as B cells and T cells. B and T cells fight invaders called antigens. B cells release antibodies specific to the disease your body detects. T cells kill off cells that are under attack by disease. An immunodeficiency disorder disrupts your body’s ability to defend itself against these antigens. Types of immunodeficiency disorder are Primary immunodeficiency disorders & Secondary  immunodeficiency  disorders.

A pathogen is a microorganism that is able to cause disease in a plant, animal or insect. Pathogenicity is the ability to produce disease in a host organism. Microbes express their pathogenicity by means of their virulence, a term which refers to the degree of pathogenicity of the microbe. Hence, the determinants of virulence of a pathogen are any of its genetic or biochemical or structural features that enable it to produce disease in a host. The relationship between a host and a pathogen is dynamic, since each modifies the activities and functions of the other. The outcome of such a relationship depends on the virulence of the pathogen and the relative degree of resistance or susceptibility of the host, due mainly to the effectiveness of the host defense mechanisms. Bacterial infectivity results from a disturbance in the balance between bacterial virulence and host resistance. The “objective” of bacteria is to multiply rather than to cause disease; it is in the best interest of the bacteria not to kill the host. Numerous physical and chemical attributes of the host protect against bacterial infection. These defenses include the antibacterial factors in secretions covering mucosal surfaces and rapid rate of replacement of skin and mucosal epithelial cells. Once the surface of the body is penetrated, bacteria encounter an environment virtually devoid of free iron needed for growth, which requires many of them to scavenge for this essential element. Bacteria invading tissues encounter phagocytic cells that recognize them as foreign, and through a complex signaling mechanism involving interleukins, eicosanoids, and complement, mediate an inflammatory response in which many lymphoid cells participate.

Nutritional Immunology aimed at understanding how diet and nutritional factors influence the immune responses, thereby regulating health and disease outcomes. Beyond providing essential nutrients, diet can actively influence the immune system. Naturally occurring compounds like  linoleic acid, abscisic acid, polyunsaturated fatty acids, resveratrol, curcumin, limonin, Vitamin E, Vitamin A, and Vitamin D modulate immune responses. Nutrition plays a fundamental role in the maintenance of health and the treatment of disease. Basic emerging of nutritional immunology is because of the detrimental effect of malnutrition on the immune system. Nutritional deficiency or unbalanced nutrition compromises the immune response leading to increased susceptibility to infectious diseases, cancer, suboptimal response to vaccinations, and other immunological disorders, e.g., allergies

Antibodies, also called immunoglobulins, are large Y-shaped proteins which function to identify and help remove foreign antigens or targets such as viruses and bacteria. Antibodies are produced by specialized white blood cells called B lymphocytes (or B cells). When an antigen binds to the B-cell surface, it stimulates the B cell to divide and mature into a group of identical cells called a clone. The mature B cells, called plasma cells, secrete millions of antibodies into the bloodstream and lymphatic system. Every different antibody recognizes a specific foreign antigen. This is because the two tips of its “Y” are specific to each antigen, allowing different antibodies to bind to different foreign antigens.Antibodies are produced by the immune system in response to the presence of an antigen. Antigens are large molecules, usually proteins, on the surface of cells, viruses, fungi, bacteria, and some non-living substances such as toxins, chemicals, and foreign particles. Any substance capable of triggering an immune response is called an antigen. The antibody recognizes a unique molecule of the harmful agent, called an antigen, via the variable region.

Antibody engineering has become a well-developed discipline, encompassing discovery methods, production strategies, and modification techniques that have brought forth clinically investigated and marketed therapeutics. The realization of the long-standing goal of production of fully human monoclonal antibodies has focused intensive research on the clinical employment of this potent drug category.

Neuroimmunology, the study of the interaction between our central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) and our immune system. Neuroimmunology contributes to development of new pharmacological treatments for several neurological conditions. The immune system and the nervous system maintain extensive communication, including 'hardwiring' of sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves to lymphoid organs. Neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine, norepinephrine, vasoactive intestinal peptide, substance P and histamine modulate immune activity. Neuroendocrine hormones such as corticotrophin-releasing factor, leptin and alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone regulate cytokine balance. The immune system modulates brain activity, including body temperature, sleep and feeding behaviour. Molecules such as the major histocompatibility complex not only direct T cells to immunogenic molecules held in its cleft but also modulate development of neuronal connections. Neurobiologists and immunologists are exploring common ideas like the synapse to understand properties such as memory that are shared in these two systems.

Antibiotics are the drug used to treat bacterial infections. Antibiotics have no effect on viral infections. Originally, an antibiotic was a substance produced by one microorganism that selectively inhibits the growth of another. Synthetic antibiotics, usually chemically related to natural antibiotics, have since been produced that accomplish comparable tasks. Several antibiotics are also effective against fungi and protozoans, and some are toxic to humans and animals, even when given in therapeutic dosage.Antibiotic must reach the binding site of the microbe to interfere with the life cycle &  must occupy “sufficient” number of active sites. Antibiotic must reside on the active site for “sufficient” time. Antibiotics are not contact poisons. Antibacterial antibiotics target the bacterial cell wall or the cell membrane, or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes.

Current research in antibiotic resistance can be divided into several areas of focus.

•             Novel antibacterial drug discoverantibacterial drug discovery

•             Investigating antibiotic use and determining minimal-risk policies

•             Nutrition as a method of controlling bacterial infections

•             Economic implications of bacterial resistance

•             Compilation of information on bacterial resistance

The immune system is a complex system of the human body and understanding it is one of the most challenging topics in biology. Immunology research is important for understanding the mechanisms underlying the defense of human body and to develop drugs for immunological diseases and maintain health. Recent findings in genomic and proteomic technologies have transformed the immunology research drastically. Sequencing of the human and other model organism genomes has produced increasingly large volumes of data relevant to immunology research and at the same time huge amounts of functional and clinical data are being reported in the scientific literature and stored in clinical records. Recent advances in bioinformatics or computational biology were helpful to understand and organize these large scale data and gave rise to new area that is called Computational immunology or immunoinformatics.

Computational immunology is a branch of bioinformatics and it is based on similar concepts and tools, such as sequence alignment and protein structure prediction tools. Immunomics is a discipline like genomics and proteomics. It is a science, which specifically combines Immunology with computer science, mathematics, chemistry, and biochemistry for large-scale analysis of immune system functions. It aims to study the complex protein–protein interactions and networks and allows a better understanding of immune responses and their role during normal, diseased and reconstitution states. Computational immunology is a part of immunomics, which is focused on analyzing large scale experimental data

Reproductive immunology refers to a field of medicine that studies interactions (or the absence of them) between the immune system and components related to the reproductive system, such as maternal immune tolerance towards the fetus, or immunological interactions across the blood-testis barrier. The concept has been used by fertility clinics to explain the fertility problems, recurrent miscarriages and pregnancy complications observed when this state of immunological tolerance is not successfully achieved. Immunological therapy is the new up and coming method for treating many cases of previously "unexplained infertility" or recurrent miscarriage Rheumatology/ Orthopaedics Related conferences

International Conference on Mucosal Immunology, July 28-29,2016, Australia; International Conference on Allergy, March, 29-30,2016,Spain; 2nd International Congress on Neuroimmunology & Therapeutics, March 31-Apr 2, 2016, USA; 2nd International Conference on Innate Immunity, July 21-22, 2016, Germany; European Immunology Conference, July 21-23, 2016, Germany; 9th European Mucosal Immunology Group Meeting, October  9 - 12 October,  Scotland; International congress  on Immunology, August  21-26, 2016, Australia; International Symposium On B Cells: Immunity And Autoimmunity, 1-3 October, 2015, Erlangen, German; 4th European Congress of Immunology September 6-9, 2015, Austria

Cytokines are a large group of proteins that are secreted by specific cells of immune system.These cytokine molecules aid cell to cell communication in immune responses and stimulate the movement of cells towards sites of inflammation, infection and trauma. Cytokines are released by cells into the circulation or directly into tissue. The cytokines locate target immune cells and interact with receptors on the target immune cells by binding to them. The interaction triggers or stimulates specific responses by the target cells. There are different types of cytokines, including chemokines, interferons, interleukins, lymphokines and tumor necrosis factor. They can act alone, work together or work against each other, but ultimately the role of cytokines is to help regulate the immune response. 

Immunotoxicology is the study of immune dysfunction. Immunotoxicology is due to exposure of an organism to foreign chemical substance found within an organism that is not normally naturally produced by or expected to be present within that organism. Immune dysfunction may result in the reduction of the activity of the immune system. Immunotoxic substances, such as chemicals, pesticides, or drugs, can have adverse effects on the functioning of the immune system. The known effects include increased susceptibility to infections or tumors as a result of humoral and/or cellular immunity being compromised (immunosuppression), autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammation, and development of allergies.

Allergy involves an exaggerated response of the immune system, often to common substances such as foods or pollen. The immune system is a complex system that normally defends the body against foreign invaders, such as bacteria and viruses, while also surveying for conditions such as cancer and autoimmunity. Allergens are substances that are foreign to the body and that cause an allergic reaction. These diseases include hay fever, food allergies, atopic dermatitis, allergic asthma, and anaphylaxis.Symptoms may include red eyes, an itchy rash, runny nose, shortness of breath, or swelling. There are many types of allergies, Drug Allergy, Food Allergy, Insect Allergy, Latex Allergy, Mold Allergy, Pet Allergy, Pollen Allergy. Some allergies are seasonal and others are year-round. Some allergies may be life-long.

Asthma is a chronic disease involving the airways in the lungs. These airways, or bronchial tubes, allow air to come in and out of the lungs. Asthma is thought to be caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The main components of asthma are airway inflammation and airway constriction. Both components affect the airways of your lungs, making it more difficult for you to breathe. Asthma is a disease that cannot be cured, but it can be managed. A number of other health conditions occur more frequently in those with asthma, including gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD), rhinosinusitis, and obstructive sleep apnea. Asthma is characterized by recurrent episodes of wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and coughing. Sputum may be produced from the lung by coughing but is often hard to bring up.

Mucosal surfaces are home to a vast array of microorganisms, referred to as the microbiome. Recent advances in next generation sequencing have enabled identification of the microbial and genomic universe of microbes that inhabit the human body. These studies are likely to be of major importance in enhancing our understanding of how mucosal immune responses are initiated and regulated in both health and disease. New insights will most certainly translate into the development of novel preventive and therapeutic strategies for mucosal disorders. At birth, the neonate's mucosal immune system is relatively undeveloped, but the colonization of intestinal flora accelerates its development.

Rheumatology is the branch/specialty of Medicine that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of patients with Rheumatic or musculo-skeletal diseases- in simple terms, “Arthritis”. Rheumatic Diseases comprise a heterogeneous group of disorders of the connective tissue, joints and bones in which musculo-skeletal pain and stiffness are the prominent symptoms. Rheumatic diseases affect people of all ages and ethnic groups and are the commonest cause of physical impairment in the community. The most common symptom of rheumatic disease, is joint pain; and if it is due to an inflammatory cause, then the pain may be associated with joint swelling and stiffness and perhaps other systemic complaints.

Pathology is a branch of medical science primarily concerning the examination of organs, tissues, and bodily fluids in order to make a diagnosis of disease. Immunopathology is a branch of biomedical science concerned with immune responses to disease, with immunodeficiency diseases, and with diseases caused by immune mechanisms.  It includes the study of the pathology of an organism, organ system, or disease with respect to the immune system, immunity, and immune responses. The immune pathological reaction is caused by release of toxins and the apoptosis of infected cell.

There are approximately 100, 000 species of fungi and these are ubiquitous in the environment. Some form spores which we inhale on a daily basis (e.g. Aspergillus spp), and others live as human commensal organisms (e.g. Candida spp). Despite the close encounters we have with fungi, how our immune system recognises and protects us from fungal pathogens is only just beginning to be well understood. Of the fungi that cause disease, many are opportunistic pathogens, meaning they only cause disease under certain circumstances − such as when the immune system becomes weakened. For example, chemotherapy, immunosuppressive drugs and HIV infection all result in an impaired immune system, meaning that fungi can then more easily infect these vulnerable patients.

The immune system is the collection of cells, tissues and molecules that protects the body from numerous pathogenic microbes and toxins in our environment. This defense against microbes has been divided into two general types of reactions: reactions of innate immunity and reactions of adaptive immunity. Thus, innate and adaptive immunity can be thought of as two equally important aspects of the immune system. As you will see, each aspect differs with respect to how quickly it responds and for how long it responds to pathogens, its central effector cell types and its specificity for different classes of microbes. As its name suggests, the innate immune system consists of cells and proteins that are always present and ready to mobilize and fight microbes at the site of infection. It thus provides an immediate response to foreign invader.The main components of the innate immune system are 1) physical epithelial barriers, 2) phagocytic leukocytes, 3) dendritic cells, 4) a special type of lymphocyte called a natural killer (NK) cell, and 5) circulating plasma proteins.

Immunocytochemistry is a technique used to assess the presence of a specific protein or antigen in cells (cultured cells, cell suspensions) by use of a specific antibody, which binds to it, thereby allowing visualization and examination under a microscope. It is a valuable tool for the determination of cellular contents from individual cells. Samples that can be analyzed include blood smears, aspirates, swabs, cultured cells, cell suspensions, and cytospin. Each sample is treated differently, yet all the methods are interchangeable. There is no one way to prepare these types of cell samples for immunocytochemical analysis.

While the term immunohistochemistry (IHC) is often used interchangeably with immunocytochemistry (ICC), significant differences exist between IHC and ICC in the nature of the biological sample that is analyzed. With IHC, tissues are removed from the patient or animal and either frozen or chemically preserved and embedded in paraffin. Sections as thin as 4μm are sliced from frozen or paraffin-embedded tissue and mounted onto slides in preparation for antibody-based staining. In this way, researchers can look at the localization of cellular components while maintaining the original architecture of the surrounding tissue, as shown in the right panel below.

Immunobiology is the branch of biology dealing with immunologic effects on infectious diseases, growth and development, recognition phenomena, hypersensitivity, heridity, aging, cancer and transplantation.

Most parasites, by the nature of their continuous contact with the immune system, generate a prolific immune response. Unfortunately, much of this response is not protective, and some is harmful. Protective immunity in some infections is due to a combination of humoral and cellular immunity; in this circumstance parasites are coated with antibody which makes them susceptible to direct cytotoxicity by macrophages, eosinophils, and neutrophils. Antibody alone is protective against some other infections. Nonspecific and genetic factors are clearly important but are still undefined participants in the host response. The immune response may be pathogenic by inducing hypersensitivity, immunologically mediated fibrosis, or circulating immune complexes. 

All living organisms are continuously exposed to substances that are capable of causing them harm. Most organisms protect themselves against such substances in more than one way with physical barriers, for example, or with chemicals that repel or kill invaders. Animals with backbones, called vertebrates, have these types of general protective mechanisms, but they also have a more advanced protective system called the immune system. The immune system is a complex network of organs containing cells that recognize foreign substances in the body and destroy them. It protects vertebrates against pathogens, or infectious agents, such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, and other parasites. The human immune system is the most complex.Although there are many potentially harmful pathogens, no pathogen can invade or attack all organisms because a pathogen's ability to cause harm requires a susceptible victim, and not all organisms are susceptible to the same pathogens. For instance, the virus that causes AIDS in humans does not infect animals such as dogs, cats, and mice. Similarly, humans are not susceptible to the viruses that cause canine distemper, feline leukemia, and mouse pox.

Immunopathology is a branch of biomedical science concerned with immune responses to disease, with immunodeficiency diseases, and with diseases caused by immune mechanisms.  It includes the study of the pathology of an organism, organ system, or disease with respect to the immune system, immunity, and immune responses. The immunopathalogical reaction is caused by release of toxins and the apoptosis of infected cell.

Immunogenicity is the property enabling a substance to provoke an immune response, or the degree to which a substance possesses this property. The ability of an antigen to elicit immune responses is called immunogenicity, which can be humoral and/or cell-mediated immune responses. Proteins are more immunogenic & T-cells are required to drive immunogenicity. Protein therapeutics of all types can potentially elicit immune responses when administered to humans. Understanding immunogenicity is a key challenge in the development of therapeutics with many biologics inducing undesirable immune responses directed towards the therapeutic resulting in reduced efficacy, anaphylaxis and occasionally life threatening autoimmunity.

Immunotoxicology is the study of immune dysfunction. Immunotoxicology is due to exposure of an organism to foreign chemical substance found within an organism that is not normally naturally produced by or expected to be present within that organism. Immune dysfunction may result in the reduction of the activity of the immune system.

The lungs are usually the first site of exposure to pathogens. To counter this imminent threat, the lungs have their own large and complex system of cells of the immune system. The alveoli are the terminal branches of the lungs where the majority of gaseous exchange occurs. As such it only houses a small number of immune cells that in mouse and man are comprised almost entirely of alveolar macrophages. These macrophages secrete a plethora of anti-microbials including oxygen metabolites, lysozyme, antimicrobial peptides and proteases. They also phagocytose and kill microbes. Alveolar macrophages are important for the recruitment of other immune cells when the threat is great by secretion of cytokines and chemokines.They can also process and present antigens to helper and cytotoxic T cells. Knowledge of pulmonary immunology is essential to the understanding of certain respiratory diseases.

Ocular immunology is the destructive inflammatory diseases of the eye mediated by abnormal immunoregulatory processes. These diseases can slightly reduce vision or lead to severe vision loss. Uveitis is inflammatory diseases that affect the uvea. In addition, uveitis is used to describe any inflammatory disease that produces swelling and destroys eye tissues, including within the retina. It’s commonly associated with systemic diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis. Many different things can cause uveitis. In some cases the cause is unknown, or in doctor language, ‘idiopathic.’ the body's immune system may be a cause.  Bruising, infections, tumors and toxins can cause eye pain, sensitivity to light, poor vision, and increased floaters.

Food allergies are increasing in prevalence at a higher rate than can be explained by genetic factors, suggesting a role for as yet unidentified environmental factors. The intestinal epithelium forms the interface between the external environment and the mucosal immune system, and emerging data suggest that the interaction between intestinal epithelial cells and mucosal dendritic cells is of particular importance in determining the outcome of immune responses to dietary antigens. Exposure to food allergens through non-oral routes, in particular through the skin, is increasingly recognized as a potentially important factor in the increasing rate of food allergy. There are many open questions on the role of environmental factors, such as dietary factors and microbiota, in the development of food allergy, but data suggest that both have an important modulatory effect on the mucosal immune system.

Recent advances

·         The cellular receptor used by HIV in fusing with target cells has been identified. The natural ligand for the receptor is capable of blocking HIV transmission in vitro, implying a new treatment strategy

·         Motor vehicle pollution is implicated in the pathogenesis of asthma. Genetic studies link the disease with the gene for interleukin 4, a cytokine known to enhance ige production

·         The subdivision of CD4, and now CD8, T lymphocytes into groupings on the basis of cytokine production is promoting a greater understanding of the role of these cells in allergy, autoimmunity, and   infection

·         Immune regulation may depend heavily on killing activated T lymphocytes at the end of an inflammatory episode through the Fas and Fas ligand system. Transplant immunologists are looking to Fas as a way of protecting foreign grafts

·         The crystallisation of a complex of T cell receptor, peptide antigen, and molecule of the major histocompatibility complex has provided the best insight yet of how these molecules interact to achieve T cell activation