1. Clinical Immunology
Clinical immunology focuses on illnesses brought on by immune system problems, such as aberrant immune system function, hypersensitivities such in asthma and other allergies, and abnormal immune system cellular tissue development. It also encompasses illnesses affecting other organ systems, in which pathology and clinical characteristics are greatly influenced by immune responses.
It is classified into two categories: autoimmunity, in which the host body assaults its own immune system, and immunodeficiency, in which the immune system responds insufficiently.
2. Immunogenetics of Autoimmunity
The majority of autoimmune illnesses have a significant heritable component to their development. This genetic influence on illness can take many different forms, from the straightforward Mendelian inheritance of causal alleles to the intricate interplay of several weak loci affecting risk. Linkage studies and genome-wide association studies are two of the methods being used to identify the genetic variations that cause illness.
Despite the fast advancements in genetic research, significant portions of the heritable risk remain unaccounted for. This is either because of the contribution of a "hidden" risk component that has not yet been found or because of the underestimated impact of known risk loci. Contrary to expectations, there is surprising conservation in the biological processes controlled by risk alleles, with multiple important immunological pathways being altered in autoimmune illnesses encompassing a wide range of clinical symptoms.
3. Computational Immunology
The high-throughput genomic and bioinformatics methods to immunology are all included in the scientific discipline known as computational immunology. Rapid advancements in information technology and the biotechnology sector have the potential to completely change immunology.
The field's goal is to transform biological data into computer problems, which may subsequently be solved using mathematical and computational methods and translated into interpretations that have immunological significance.
4. Immunopathogenic Mechanisms
Systemic autoimmunity is mostly regulated by interferon, which is generated by innate immune cells and stimulates B and T cells. A positive feedback loop involving both the innate and adaptive systems is created when dendritic cells are stimulated to generate type 1 interferon by autoantibodies produced from B-cells. Multiple such crucial pathways in autoimmune disease may be concurrently and selectively targeted by new therapies.
Psoriasis is a common autoimmune skin disease characterized by T cell-mediated hyper proliferation of keratinocytes. The disease has a strong but complex genetic background with a concordance of approximately 60% in monozygotic twins, and recent linkage and high resolution association studies indicate that HLA-Cw*0602 is itself a major susceptibility allele for psoriasis. Patients carrying this allele have been shown to have different clinical features and earlier age of disease onset, and patients homozygous for this allele have about 2.5 times higher disease risk than heterozygotes. Published data indicate that CD8+ T cells may play a major effector role in psoriasis. Epidermal infiltration of predominantly oligoclonal CD8+ T cells, and probably also of CD4+ T cells in the dermis, is a striking feature of chronic psoriasis lesions, indicating that these cells are responding to specific antigens.
5. Vaccines and Immunotherapy
Immunotherapy medications assist your immune system's creative manifestation or make it easier for it to locate and eliminate the majority of disease cells.
The opportunistic bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa is in charge of acute hospital acquired infections. This study discussed several therapeutic modalities, including conventional therapy, cutting-edge antibiotic therapies, and non-antibiotic treatments, to treat infections brought on by P. aeruginosa. The majority of the advancements are still in the research stages and will eventually lead to new therapeutic choices.
6. Cellular Adhesion, Migration, and Inflammation
Leukocytes and other cells go to various tissues to engage with certain antigens or to produce a reaction to any inflammatory event. Any infection or injury that causes inflammation results in a complicated chain of events that includes swelling, discomfort, heat, and redness of the inflamed region.
The primary cause of illness and mortality in the US is atherosclerosis, which manifests as coronary, cerebral, and peripheral arterial vascular disease. From the epidemiologic discovery of cardiac risk factors to a growing comprehension of the molecular underpinnings of vascular pathobiology, our understanding of the process of thermogenesis has developed.
Over the past ten years, evidence has accumulated supporting the idea that chronic inflammation plays a part in thermogenesis and that the development of the atherosclerotic plaque is aided by a widespread cellular and humeral inflammatory response. Understanding the molecular causes of inflammation in the vasculature is essential to identifying possible locations of intervention to slow or stop the development of atherosclerosis.
7. Cancer Genetics and Cell Biology
Cancer is a hereditary infection caused by an increase in DNA mutations and epigenetic alterations, which lead to unchecked cell division and the development of neoplasms. The collection of humans undergoes transformation on a regular basis, but it is still capable of adapting to the majority of the changes. Accordingly, it won't be possible to produce a tumour with a single transformation.
Disease is often brought on by a variety of changes throughout the course of a person's lifespan. The fact that older people develop cancer is due to the fact that they have had a variety of transformational opportunities. Oncogenic controls how characteristics connected to cancer are shown. They are referred to be protective cells because tumour suppressor genes, also known as oncogenes, are those that deal with the cell cycle process. The risk of cancer is increased by these inherited modifications.
8. Cytokines and Chemokine’s and Their Receptors
The immune system is able to communicate well and is built to react swiftly, decisively, and globally to defend an organism against pathogens and outside invaders. The immune system is created and controlled by the cytokine superfamily of proteins, which is a crucial component of the cell signalling network. Recent years have seen significant advancements in our understanding of how cytokines and chemotactic cytokines interact with or influence the immune system.
The techniques utilised to regulate the intensity and duration of signalling are covered in this chapter along with the activation of the Janus kinase/signal transducers and activators of transcription pathway. It focuses on the family of proteins called suppressor of cytokine signalling, which functions as a negative feedback loop to shut down signal transduction. Additionally, it provides a brief overview of the other important signalling pathways that members of the transforming growth factor family and the tumour necrosis factor family employ. Additionally, G-protein-coupled chemokine receptor signalling by chemokine’s is reported.
9. Haematopoiesis and Immune System Development
Hematopoietic or lymphoid malignancies are growths that severely impact the blood, bone marrow, lungs, and lymphatic system. Malignancies of the hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues include leukaemia, myeloproliferative neoplasms, dyspraxia of plasma cells, and dendritic cell tumours.
Effective research tools for examining human immune function, immunology, infectious illness, and transplant biology are immune-deficient mice with specific IL2rg gene mutations. These mice have their immune systems engrafted with human immune systems. By implanting human foetal thymes and liver tissues in recipients who have had radiation treatment, followed by an intravenous infusion of an autologous foetal liver haematopoietic stem, the most reliable human immunological model is produced.
10. Mucosal and Regional Immunology
Mucosal immunology is the study of immune responses that take place at the mucosal membranes of the respiratory system, urogenital tract, and intestines. Food, inhaled allergens, and microbes are constantly in touch with the mucous membranes.
When functioning properly, the mucosal immune system defends the body against infectious pathogens and maintains tolerance for commensal bacteria and benign environmental elements. Pathological problems including food allergies, irritable bowel syndrome, infection susceptibility, and more can result from the disruption of this equilibrium between pathogen tolerance and deprivation.
11. Lymphocyte Differentiation and Peripheral Maintenance
Lymphocytes play a key role in the fight against infections; they have strong effector mechanisms, and it is crucial to control their activity at all times to prevent the death of self-tissue or cells. Both protochordates and vertebrates have been shown to have these immune lineages.
All hematopoietic lineages, including lymphocytes, develop into long-term hematopoietic cells in the bone marrow. Adaptive immunological responses are carried out by B and T cells. Although natural killer (NK) cells are thought to have a lymphocytic ancestry, they grow quite differently from lymphocytes.
12. Therapeutic Approaches to Autoimmunity
Immune system illness or infection is described as an inappropriate insensitive reaction of the casing toward certain cells and tissues that is often gifted with within the edge. Immune system disorders can be distinguished as organ- and tissue-specific.
In good health, the immune system's primary job is to guard the host from parasite and microbial infection. The immune system contains central and peripheral mechanisms of tolerance, including regulatory T and B cells, thanks to evolution because immune responses to nonself run the danger of accidentally releasing immunity against self.
Although several innovative medicines have successfully made the transition to the clinic over the past two decades to treat chronic inflammation, the development of antigen-based strategies that can specifically reduce autoimmune inflammation without affecting healthy immunity has remained elusive.
13. Transplantation Immunology
Moving cells, tissues, or organs from one location to another, either within the same person or between a donor and a recipient, is the process of transplantation. A healthy organ or tissue from a donor might be used to replace one that has failed or been destroyed due to disease or accident. Organ transplantation is a serious procedure and is only offered after all other therapeutic options have failed. As a result, it frequently constitutes a life-saving procedure.
The area of organ and tissue transplantation was established in 1967 with the discovery of the human MHC. Such transplants have been carried out over 800,000 times over this time. The success of organ transplantation over the past 20 years has been greatly influenced by the development of pharmacologic agents and anti-lymphocyte antibodies that interfere with the process of graft rejection, even though MHC antigen matching between the donor and recipient was shown to be extremely important and still Understanding the immunologic pathways of transplant rejection and graft-versus-host disease has advanced significantly. The functions of immune cell surface molecules, signalling processes, cytokines released by immune cells, helper and cytotoxic T cells, antibodies, antigen-presenting cells, and antigen-presenting cells have been defined.
14. Veterinary and Comparative Immunology
Immunotherapy medications either make it easier for your immune system to detect and eliminate the majority of disease-causing cells or make it more unpleasant for it to do so.
The goal of the Comparative and Veterinary Immunology Group is to bring together experts in veterinary, human, and mouse immunology and to serve as a venue for dialogue, teamwork, and idea sharing. The CVIG will plan targeted meetings, conferences, or thematic sessions within conferences like the BSI annual congress to accomplish these goals. Read our post on Immunology News to find out more about the goals and activities of CVIG.
15. Immune Response Regulation
The interaction of cell surface receptors with secreted cytokines and with one another tightly controls the immune response, and several groups are investigating the mechanisms by which these interactions have regulatory effects.Understanding how specialised cells or anatomical regions, such as vascular endothelial cells or the epidermis, control and guide the immune response is another important area of research.
The pathogenesis of IBD depends on the interaction of effector T cells and APCs. APCs ingest the antigens that support the inflammatory response. Epitope is presented in the context of MHC class II as a result of antigen degradation within proteasomes. The CD4+ T cell and macrophage engage specifically with antigens when MHC classes II and the T-cell receptor (CD3) connect. The T cell must occur, but it is not enough to activate it. Because binding of CD3 to MHC class II without a co-stimulatory signal might result in energy or apoptosis, a second co-stimulatory signal is also required. Co-stimulatory signals of importance include TNF-TNF receptor, CD40-CD40 ligand, and B7-CD28 binding.
16. Technological Innovations in Immunology
The interaction of cell surface receptors with secreted cytokines and with one another tightly controls the immune response, and several groups are investigating the mechanisms by which these interactions have regulatory effects.Understanding how specialised cells or anatomical regions, such as vascular endothelial cells or the epidermis, control and guide the immune response is another important area of research.
The pathogenesis of IBD depends on the interaction of effector T cells and APCs. APCs ingest the antigens that support the inflammatory response. Epitope is presented in the context of MHC class II as a result of antigen degradation within proteasomes. The CD4+ T cell and macrophage engage specifically with antigens when MHC classes II and the T-cell receptor (CD3) connect. The T cell must occur, but it is not enough to activate it. Because binding of CD3 to MHC class II without a co-stimulatory signal might result in energy or apoptosis, a second co-stimulatory signal is also required. Co-stimulatory signals of importance include TNF-TNF receptor, CD40-CD40 ligand, and B7-CD28 binding.
17. Microbial Parasitic and Fungal Immunology
Here, in order to identify novel immunological signals of latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) and comprehend the phenotypic of tuberculosis (TB)-specific T cells, we used a cell population transcriptomics technique to sort human memory CD8 T cells.
We discovered a 41-gene profile that could distinguish memory CD8 T cells from uninfected controls and healthy LTBI participants. The majority of the genes in the gene signature were known to be linked to mucosal associated invariant T cells (MAITs), which was consistent with the reduced frequency of MAITs found in LTBI patients.
18. Radiation Oncology
High-energy x-rays or other particles are used in radiation therapy as a cancer treatment to kill cancer cells. Radiation oncologists are medical professionals that specialise in administering radiation therapy as a cancer treatment. A radiation therapy regimen, often known as a schedule, typically has a certain number of sessions spread out over a predetermined time.
Many different forms of cancer can be treated with radiation treatment. Additionally, it can be utilised in conjunction with other cancer therapies including chemotherapy and/or surgery.
19. Cancer Immunology & Immunotherapy
The obstacles of administering immune-oncology treatments are examined in Strategies and Engineering Technologies in Cell Therapy. At the intersection of immunology and cancer biology, the branch of medicine known as Immunol-oncology is expanding. It has resulted in the creation of new treatment strategies like immune checkpoint blockade antibodies and chimeric antigen receptor T-cells (CAR-T).
Many different forms of cancer can be treated with radiation treatment. Additionally, it can be utilised in conjunction with other cancer therapies including chemotherapy and/or surgery.
20. Cancer Pharmacology
Discovering the cellular and molecular causes of cancer, as well as identifying and creating new anti-cancer targets and treatment approaches, are the main goals of pharmacology. Our work creates a link between the disciplines of radiation biology, clinical pharmacology, biochemical pharmacology, and molecular carcinogenesis. The Roget Cancer Center, an NCI-designated comprehensive cancer centre, and the Pharmacology Department work closely together on our research activities.
Genetic and epigenetic processes that result in neoplastic transformation characterise the pathologic state known as cancer. Inadequate diagnosis, poor prognosis causing recurrence, and anticancer drug resistance to existing treatment regimens are the main obstacles to cancer prevention and treatment. However, it is extremely difficult for medications to target important pathways that are unique to cancer cells, which has led to low potency, poor target or isoform or kinase selectivity by the present pharmaceuticals or molecules in clinical trials. Off-target effects are also extremely challenging to ignore due to most existing medicines' poor pharmacokinetics and low durability.
21. Cancer
More than 120 different forms of cancer and associated genetic disorders have personalised cancer guidelines. In-depth, oncologist-recommended information is provided in each guide on the following topics: Introduction, Medical Illustrations, Risk Factors, Prevention, Symptoms & Signs, Diagnosis, Stages, Types of Treatment, About Clinical Trials, Latest Research, Coping with Treatment, Follow-Up Care, Survivorship, Questions to Ask the Health Care Team, and Additional Resources.
All treatment choices, according to the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO), should be chosen in consultation with the patient's physician. To find the guide you need, use the menu below. If your specific disease is not listed in the first tab's list of common diagnoses, please utilize the alphabetical tabs to view all of Cancer.
For over a century, modern medicine has been at battle with cancer, with no apparent victory in sight. Cancer therapies have come a long way, but they still need to be more specialised and have fewer systemic side effects. Diagnostic tools are on the verge of a technological revolution, and early diagnosis is the key to enhancing prognostic outlook and patient quality of life. Cancer chemotherapy, radiation, diagnostics, and imaging have all seen steady advancements because to nanotechnology, which has shown its ability to improve each and improve patient care.
